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Latterfugl
Bevaringsstatus

Ikke truet  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Videnskabelig klassifikation
RigeAnimalia (Dyr)
RækkeChordata (Chordater)
KlasseAves (Fugle)
OrdenCoraciiformes (Skrigefugle)
FamilieAlcedinidae (Isfugle)
UnderfamilieHalcyoninae
SlægtDacelo
ArtD. novaeguineae
Videnskabeligt artsnavn
Dacelo novaeguineae
(Hermann, 1783)
Kort
Udbredelse i Australien Mørkegrøn: naturlig Lysegrøn: indført
Udbredelse i Australien
Mørkegrøn: naturlig
Lysegrøn: indført
Hjælp til læsning af taksobokse
Latterfugl i Knocklofty Reserve, Hobart, Tasmanien

Latterfuglen (Dacelo novaeguineae) er en isfugl i underfamilien Halcyoninae. Den er også kendt under sit australske navn kookaburra (det fuldstændige engelske navn er laughing kookaburra). Den er en stor isfugl med et hvidligt hoved med en brun øjenstribe.[2] Oversiden er primært mørkebrun, men der er en stribe med lyseblå pletter på vingedækfjerene.[3][2] Undersiden er cremet hvid og halen har rødbrune og sorte striber.[2] Fjerdragten hos hanner og hunner er ens. Territorialkaldet er en karakteristisk latter, som ofte bliver fremført af flere fugle på samme tid.

Latterfuglen er naturligt hjemmehørende i den østlige del af det australske fastland, men den er også indført til dele af New Zealand, Tasmanien og Western Australia.[4] Den findes i eukalyptus-skove, åbne skovområder samt parker og haver i byer.[4] Det er en standfugl, som året rundt forsvarer sit eget territorium. Den er monogam og har den samme partner hele live. Et ynglepar kan være ledsaget af op til 5 voksne, men ikke ynglende, unger, som hjælper med at forsvare territoriet og opfostre unger.[4] Latterfuglen yngler typisk i træhuller eller udgrave selv redehuller i termitboer i træer.[4] Den lægger 3 hvide æg. The parents and the helpers incubate the eggs og foder ungerne. Den yngste af de tre unger bliver ofte dræbt af de ældre unger. De flyvefærdige unger bliver fodret i 6 til 10 uger, indtil de selv kan finde føde.[5]

Latterfuglen er en rovfugl, som typisk sidder på en gren til den ser et byttedyr for derefter hurtigt at slå ned på det.[3] Føden er firben, insekter, orme, slange, mus og den er også kendt for at tage guldfisk i havedamme.

Fuglen er almindeligt forekommende, og International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) har klassificeret den som værende ikke truet.[1]

Taksonomi

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Farveplanche med forkert titel, som blev brugt af såvel Johann Hermann som Pieter Boddaert

Latterfuglen blev første gang beskrevet og illustreret (i sort og hvid) af den franske naturhistoriker og opdagelsesrejsende Pierre Sonnerat i hans bog Voyage à la nouvelle Guinée, som blev udgivet i 1776.[6][7] Han påstod at have set fuglen i New Guinea. I virkeligheden besøgte Sonnerat aldrig New Guinea og latterfuglen findes ikke der. Han har formentligt fået fat på et eksemplar fra en af de naturhistorikere, der sejlede med James Cook til østkysten af Australien.[8] Edme-Louis Daubenton og François-Nicolas Martinet medtog en farveplanche af en latterfugl baseret på Sonnerats eksemplar i deres Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle. Planchen har den franske titel "Martin-pecheur, de la Nouvelle Guinée" (isfugl fra New Guinea).[9]

I 1783 lavede den franske naturhistoriker Johann Hermann en formel beskrivelse af arten baseret på Daubenton og Martinets farveplanche. Han gav den det videnskabelige navn Alcedo novæ Guineæ.[10][11] Det nuværende slægtsnavn Dacelo blev introduceret i 1815 af den engelske zoolog William Elford Leach.[12][13] Navnet er et anagram for Alcedo, det latinske ord for isfugl. Navnet novaeguineae er sammensat af det latinske novus for ny og Guinea,[14] baseret på den fejlagtige opfattelse at eksemplaret kom fra New Guinea.[7] I mange år troede man, den første videnskabelige beskrivelse af fuglen blev udfærdiget af den nederlandske naturhistoriker Pieter Boddaert, og hans navn Dacelo gigas blev brugt i den videnskabelige litteratur.[15] I 1926 fandt den australske ornitologi Gregory Mathews dog ud af, at Hermann havde offentliggjort sin beskrivelse tidligere samme år, 1783, og derfor havde fortrinsret, til trods for det misvisende navn.[7][16]

I det 19. århundrede var det almindeligt brugte navn i Australien "Laughing Jackass", som første blev brugt i An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales af David Collins, som blev udgivet i 1798.[17][18] I 1858 brugte ornitologen John Gould navnet "great brown kingfisher", som stammede helt tilbage fra John Latham i 1782.[19][20] Et andet populært navn var "laughing kingfisher".[18] Latterfuglens navn fra flere forskellige aboriginske sprog blev opgivet af europæiske forfattere som f.eks. Go-gan-ne-gine af Collins i 1798,[17] Cuck'anda af René Lesson i 1828[21] og Gogera eller Gogobera af George Bennett i 1834.[22] I begyndelsen af det 20. århundrede blev "kookaburra" brugt som et alternativt navn i ornitologiske publikationer,[23][24] men det først i 1926 i den anden udgave af Official Checklist of Birds of Australia, at Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union officiel skiftede til "laughing kookaburra".[18] Navnet kommer fra Wiradjuri, et truet aboriginsk sprog.[18]

Slægten Dacelo omfatter fire arter. De to arter hvidnæbbet latterfugl og perlehovedet latterfugl findes kun i New Guinea og øerne i Torresstrædet. Hvidhovedet latterfugl findes i det sydlige New Guinea og nordlige Australien.[25]

Der er to anerkendte underarter af latterfuglen:[26]

  • D. n. novaeguineae (Hermann, 1783) – nominatformen, det østlige Australien og indført til Tasmanien, det sydvestlige Australien og New Zealand.
  • D. n. minor Robinson, 1900 – Cape York Peninsula mod syd til Cooktown[27][5]

Beskrivelse

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Large bill and head detail

Latterfuglen er den største af alle isfugle.[5][28] Den er en kraftig fugl med en længde på 41 - 47 cm, stort hoved, prominente øjne og et langt, kraftigt næb.[2] Kønnene er næsten ens, men hunnen er normalt større og har mindre blåt mod gumpen end hannen. Hannen vejer 196 - 450 g, 307 g i gennemsnit, og hunnen 190 - 465 g, 352 g i gennemsnit.[29] Latterfuglen har hvid og cremefarvet krop og hoved med mørk brun øjenstribe og mindre tydelige brune striber på hovedet. Vingerne og ryggen er brune med blå pletter på skuldrene. Halen er rød-orange med mørkebrune striber og hvid spids. Det kraftige næb er sort øverst og benfarvet nederst. Underarten D. n. minor har samme fjerdragt som nominatformen, men er mindre.[5]

Latterfuglen kan adskilles fra den hvidhovedede latterfugl, der er af samme størrelse, på sit mørke øje, mørk øjenstribe, kortere næb og de mindre og mere matte blå områder på vingen og gumpen.[5] Hannen hos den hvidhovede latterfugl har en stribet blå og sort hale.[5]

In Royal National Park, NSW

Kald

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Navnet "latterfugl" er en reference til fuglens "latter", som den bruger til at hævde sit territoprium. Den kan høres hele dagen, men oftest ved solopgang og solnedgang.[5]

This species possesses a tracheo-bronchial syrinx, which creates two sources of vibrations so it can produce two frequencies at the same time with multiple harmonics.[4] The laughing kookaburras call is made through a complex sound production system, by forcing air from the lungs into the bronchial tubes.[4] While the structure for producing calls is present from an early age, the kookaburra's song is a learned behavior.[30] The breeding pair within a riot of kookaburra teach the fledglings to produce the signature laughing call after the young have left the nest.[30] The adult male will sing a short portion of the call while the offspring mimics this call, usually unsuccessfully.[30] The singing lessons tend to last two weeks before the fledgling can properly sing and take part in crepuscular choral songs.[30] Once mastered, the young can join in crepuscular chorus songs that aid in establishing territory.[30]

One bird starts with a low, hiccuping chuckle, then throws its head back in raucous laughter: often several others join in.[3][29] If a rival tribe is within earshot and replies, the whole family soon gathers to fill the bush with ringing laughter.[2] The laughing chorus has 5 variable elements: 1. "Kooa"; 2. "Cackle"; 3. "Rolling", a rapidly repeated "oo-oo-oo"; 4. Loud "Ha-ha"; followed by 5. Male's call of "Go-go" or female's call of "Gurgle".[29] Hearing kookaburras in full voice is one of the more extraordinary experiences of the Australian bush, something even locals cannot ignore; some visitors, unless forewarned, may find their calls startling.

Those calls are produced to attract/guard mates, establish and maintain the social hierarchy, and declare and defend a territory, as their calls are more often correlated with aggressiveness.[31] Calls are utilized as neighbour/kin recognition to exhibit that groups are still inhabiting a territory.[30] These calls also demonstrate to receivers that highly coordinated groups are of better quality and health.[32] Acoustic communication between laughing kookaburras increases 2–3 months before the breeding season, September to January, because male aggression also increases.[4]

The duetting call requires higher levels of cooperation within the group.[4] The coordination of calls amongst kookaburras has been hypothesized to strengthen the main long-term pair bond and may have evolved as a mechanism to solidify the group's bonds since it is energetically costly to learn a new song.[32] Neighbouring groups exhibit degrees of cooperation as well since chorus songs between neighbours are delivered without any overlap, alternating between groups.[30]

Other forms of acoustic communication

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Squawking is another common form of acoustic communication in D. novaeguineae that is used in a slew of different contexts.[29] Laughing kookaburras have been noted to squawk when nesting, exhibiting submissive behavior, and when fledglings are waiting to be fed.[29] Laughing kookaburras have a greater repertoire of calls than other kookaburra species like the Blue-winged kookaburra (Dacelo leachii) that produces two simple types of calls: “barks” and “hiccups”.[33] This large range of calls is highlighted through cadencing, intonation, and frequency modulations that allow more detailed information to be conveyed.[34]

Udbredelse

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Latterfuglen er naturligt hjemmehørende i det østlige Australien fra Kap York-halvøen i nord til Cape Otway i syd. Den findes både øst og vest for Great Dividing Range. Mod syd er den udbredt fra Victoria til Yorke Peninsula og Flinders Ranges i South Australia.[35]

Den er blevet indført mange andre steder, måske på grund af dens ry for at dræbe slanger. In December 1891, the Western Australian parliament included 'Laughing Jackass' in the schedule of strictly preserved Australian native birds in the Game Bill, moved by Horace Sholl, member for North District. He described it as native of the North West.[36] His nomination is, therefore, certainly a reference to the blue-winged kookaburra (Dacelo leachii), not the laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae). The Game Act, 1892 (Western Australia), "An Act to provide for the preservation of imported birds and animals, and of native game," provided that proclaimed Australian native birds and animals listed in the First Schedule of the Act could be declared protected from taking. Laughing Jackass was one of 23 Australian native bird species named in the schedule.

Latterfugle fra det østlige Australien blev indført til det sydvestlige Australien allerede i 1883.[37] with birds being noted between Perth and Fremantle, as well as up in Mullewa around 1896.[38] The Acclimatization Society (or Animal and Bird Acclimatization committee of WA) imported and released hundreds of birds between 1897 and 1912.[39] Mainly via Ernest Le Souef who was Secretary of the Acclimatization Society and Director of Perth Zoological Gardens, an enthusiastic supporter of the Kookaburra who admitted to releasing hundreds from the Zoo, including 50 in 1900 at the Royal request of the visiting Duke of York.

By 1912 breeding populations had been established in a number of areas. The present range in Western Australia is southwest of a line joining Geraldton on the west coast and Hopetoun on the south coast.[4] In Tasmania the laughing kookaburra was introduced at several locations beginning in 1906. It now mainly occurs northeast of a line joining Huonville, Lake Rowallan, Waratah and Marrawah.[4] It was introduced on Flinders Island in around 1940, where it is now widespread, and on Kangaroo Island in 1926.[4]

In the 1860s, during his second term as governor of New Zealand, George Grey arranged for the release of laughing kookaburras on Kawau Island. The island lies in the Hauraki Gulf, about 40 km (25 mi) north of Auckland on the North Island of New Zealand. It was thought that the introduction had been unsuccessful but in 1916 some birds were discovered on the adjacent mainland.[35][40] It now breeds in a small region on the western side of the Hauraki Gulf between Leigh and Kumeū.[35]

The usual habitat is open sclerophyll forest and woodland. It is more common where the understory is open and sparse or where the ground is covered with grass. Tree-holes are needed for nesting. It also occurs near wetlands and in partly cleared areas or farmland with trees along roads and fences. In urban areas it is found in parks and gardens.[41] The range of the laughing kookaburra overlaps with that of the blue-winged kookaburra in an area of eastern Queensland that extends from the Cape York Peninsula south to near Brisbane. Around Cooktown the laughing kookaburra tends to favour areas near water while the blue-winged kookaburra keeps to drier habitats.[5]

Adfærd

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Kookaburra with a captured gecko in its beak

Kookaburras occupy woodland territories (including forests) in loose family groups, and their laughter serves the same purpose as a great many other bird calls—to mark territorial borders. Most species of kookaburras tend to live in family units, with offspring helping the parents hunt and care for the next generation of offspring.

Breeding

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Juvenile in Sydney: Juveniles have shorter bills with a dark underside, and a strong white on the wing and mantle feathers

During mating season, the laughing kookaburra reputedly indulges in behaviour similar to that of a wattlebird. The female adopts a begging posture and vocalises like a young bird. The male then offers her his current catch accompanied with an "oo oo oo" sound. However, some observers maintain that the opposite happens – the female approaches the male with her current catch and offers it to him. Nest-building may start in August with a peak of egg-laying from September to November.[4] If the first clutch fails, they will continue breeding into the summer months.[4]

The female generally lays a clutch of three semi-glossy, white, rounded eggs, measuring Skabelon:Cvt, at about two-day intervals.[3] Both parents and auxiliaries incubate the eggs for 24–26 days.[4] Hatchlings are Skabelon:Birdgloss and Skabelon:Birdgloss, fledging by day 32–40.[4] If the food supply is not adequate, the third egg will be smaller and the third chick will also be smaller and at a disadvantage relative to its larger siblings. Chicks have a hook on the upper mandible, which disappears by the time of fledging. If the food supply to the chicks is not adequate, the chicks will quarrel, with the hook being used as a weapon. The smallest chick may even be killed by its larger siblings.[4] If food is plentiful, the parent birds spend more time brooding the chicks, so the chicks are not able to fight.

Føde

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A laughing kookaburra making a hollow for a nest in an arboreal termite nest.
Catching a worm, Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia

Kookaburras hunt much as other kingfishers (or indeed Australasian robins) do, by perching on a convenient branch or wire and waiting patiently for prey to pass by. Common prey include mice and similar-sized small mammals, a large variety of invertebrates (such as insects, earthworms and snails), yabbies, small fish, lizards, frogs, small birds and nestlings, and most famously, snakes.[4][29] Small prey are preferred, but kookaburras sometimes take large creatures, including venomous snakes, much longer than their bodies.[4] When feeding their young, adult laughing kookaburras will make “Chuck calls”, which are deep, guttural calls that differ significantly from their daily chorus songs.[29]

Visual displays

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To further enhance territorial behavior, kookaburras will partake in two types of aerial displays: trapeze and circular flights.[42] Trapeze flights are aptly named after the swooping motion that neighbouring kookaburras will make towards one another in midair when defending territory.[42] During trapeze flights, an individual from each riot will perch on branches bordering the others' territory and fly back and forth between trees within their established home range and trees bordering neighbouring kookaburras territory.[42] These displays have been observed to last up to a half an hour and are usually accompanied by calls from the sender and members of that individual's riot.[42] Circle flights are initiated when an individual circumnavigates a neighbouring territory by flying over the area and then quickly invading neighbouring territory.[42] Once inside the neighbouring territory, the individual will fly in circles around the other kookaburras inhabiting the area, which results in a typical laughing call or squawking depending on whether the neighbours' dominance status.[42] Flight displays are useful for communicating over long distances, but other forms of visual signals can be effective for short-range communication.

Close range visual signals can be used to convey aggression or indicate incoming threats to the flock.[42] Aggressive posturing is used as a warning before attacking, a signal that is commonly received by foreign kookaburras encroaching on another groups' territory.[43] Laughing kookaburras will splay out their wings and propel their head forward while shaking their tail feathers to exhibit dominance and ward off intruders.[43] The aggressive posturing is followed up by chasing off the unwanted individual before attacking.[4] Visual displays are also used to communicate vigilance and the presence of threats via alert postures.[4] D. novaeguineae will open its beak, ruffle up the feathers surrounding its cap, and angle their heads towards the direction of the threat.[4] Depending on the urgency of the threat, alarm postures may be followed by loud laugh-like calls to warn other members of the flock.[4]

Relationship with humans

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Image of a laughing kookaburra holding a sausage in its mouth.
A laughing kookaburra seen eating a sausage which it snatched from a barbeque.

Laughing kookaburras are a common sight in suburban gardens and urban settings, even in built-up areas, and are so tame that they will often eat out of a person's hands, and allow them to rub their bellies. It is not uncommon for kookaburras to snatch food out of people's hands without warning, by swooping in from a distance. People often feed them pieces of raw meat. Laughing kookaburras are often kept in zoos.

The kookaburra is also the subject of a popular Australian children's song, the "Kookaburra" which was written by Marion Sinclair in 1934.[44]

Recordings of this bird have been edited into Hollywood movies for decades, usually in jungle settings, beginning with the Tarzan series in the 1930s, and more recently in the film The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997).[45]

Conservation status

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The population density of the laughing kookaburra in Australia varies between 0.04 and 0.8 birds/ha depending on the habitat. Assuming an average of 0.3 birds/ha the total population may be as large as 65 million individuals.[5] However, this may represent a severe over-estimate since the population of the laughing kookaburra seems to be undergoing a marked decline with Birdata showing a 50% drop in sightings from 2000 to 2019, and a drop in the reporting rate from 25% to 15% over the same period.[46] The population in New Zealand is relatively small and is probably less than 500 individuals.[47] Given the extended range and the large stable population, the species is evaluated as of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[1]

Referencer

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  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2016). "Dacelo novaeguineae". IUCN's rødliste over truede arter. 2016: e.T22683189A92977835. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22683189A92977835.en. Hentet 19. november 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e Pizzey, Graham and Doyle, Roy. (1980) A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Collins Publishers, Sydney. ISBN 073222436-5
  3. ^ a b c d Morcombe, Michael (2012) Field Guide to Australian Birds. Pascal Press, Glebe, NSW. Revised edition. ISBN 978174021417-9
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Higgins, Peter J., red. (1999). "Dacelo novaeguineae Laughing Kookaburra" (PDF). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to dollarbird. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. s. 1121-1138. ISBN 978-0-19-553071-1.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fry, C. H.; Fry, Kathie; Harris, Alan (1999). Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers. London: Christopher Helm. s. 133-136. ISBN 978-0-7136-5206-2.
  6. ^ Sonnerat, Pierre (1776). Voyage à la Nouvelle Guinée (fransk). Chez Ruault. p. 170, Plate 106.
  7. ^ a b c Mees, G.F. (1977). "The scientific name of the Laughing Kookaburra: Dacelo gigas (Boddaert) v. Dacelo novaeguineae (Hermann)". Emu. 77 (1): 35-36. doi:10.1071/mu9770035.
  8. ^ Lysaght, A. (1956). "Why did Sonnerat record the kookaburra, Dacelo gigas (Boddaert) from New Guinea?". Emu. 56 (3): 224-225. doi:10.1071/MU956224.
  9. ^ Daubenton, Edme-Louis; Martinet, François-Nicolas (1765-1783). Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle. Vol. 7. Paris. Plate 663.{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato-format (link)
  10. ^ Peters, James Lee, red. (1945). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 5. Vol. 5. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. s. 190.
  11. ^ Hermann, Johann (1783). Tabula affinitatum animalium olim academico specimine edita : nunc uberiore commentario illustrata cum annotationibus ad historiam naturalem animalium augendam facientibus (latin). Argentorati: Impensis Joh. Georgii Treuttel. s. 192 Note.
  12. ^ Peters, James Lee, red. (1945). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 5. Vol. 5. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. s. 189.
  13. ^ Leach, William Elford (1815). The Zoological Miscellany; being descriptions of new, or interesting Animals. Vol. 2. London: B. McMillan for E. Nodder & Son. s. 125.
  14. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. s. 130, 275. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  15. ^ Boddaert, Pieter (1783). Table des planches enluminéez d'histoire naturelle de M. D'Aubenton (fransk). Utrecht. s. 40.
  16. ^ Mathews, Gregory M. (1926). "An important date". Emu. 26: 148. doi:10.1071/mu926148.
  17. ^ a b Collins, David (1798). An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. London: T. Cadell Jr and W. Davies. Appendix 12 Language.
  18. ^ a b c d Gray, Jeannie; Fraser, Ian (2013). Australian Bird Names: A Complete Guide. Collingwood VIC, Australia: CSIRO. s. 156-158. ISBN 978-0-64310469-3.
  19. ^ Gould, John (1848). The Birds of Australia. Vol. 2. London: Self-published. Plate 18.
  20. ^ Latham, John (1782). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 1. London: Printed for Benj. White. s. 609.
  21. ^ Lesson, René Primeverre (1828). Manuel d'ornithologie, ou description des genres et des principales espèces d'oiseaux (fransk). Paris: Roret. s. 93.
  22. ^ Bennett, George (1834). Wandering in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, and China: being the journal of a naturalist in those countries during 1832, 1833, and 1834. Vol. 1. London: Richard Bentley. s. 222.
  23. ^ Lucas, A.H.S.; Le Souef, W.H. Dunley (1911). The Birds of Australia. London: Whitcombe and Tombs. s. 236-237.
  24. ^ Leach, John Albert (1912). An Australian bird book: a pocket book for field use (2nd udgave). Melbourne: Whitcombe & Tombs. s. 105.
  25. ^ Woodall, P.F. (2020). "Kingfishers (Alcedinidae)". I del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (red.). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. doi:10.2173/bow.alcedi1.01. Hentet 2. februar 2017.(abonnement nødvendigt)
  26. ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, red. (2016). "Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers". World Bird List Version 6.3. International Ornithologists' Union. Hentet 10. oktober 2016.
  27. ^ Robinson, Herbert Christopher (1900). "Contributions to the zoology of north Queensland". Bulletin of the Liverpool Museums. 2 (3&4): 116.
  28. ^ Dunning, John B. Jr., red. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd udgave). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Woodall, P. F. (2020). "Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), version 1.0." In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.laukoo1.01
  30. ^ a b c d e f g Baker, Myron C. (januar 2004). "The Chorus Song of Cooperatively Breeding Laughing Kookaburras (Coraciiformes, Halcyonidae: Dacelo novaeguineae): Characterization and Comparison Among Groups". Ethology. 110 (1): 21-35. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0310.2003.00941.x.
  31. ^ Reyer, Heinz-Ulrich; Schmidl, Dieter (september 1988). "Helpers Have Little to Laugh About: Group Structure and Vocalisation in the Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae". Emu – Austral Ornithology. 88 (3): 150-160. doi:10.1071/mu9880150. ISSN 0158-4197.{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  32. ^ a b Hall, Michelle L. (1. marts 2004). "A review of hypotheses for the functions of avian duetting". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 55 (5): 415-430. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0741-x. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 33751268.
  33. ^ Legge, Sarah, red. (2004). Kookaburra: King of the Bush. Clayton South, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. doi:10.1071/9780643091375. ISBN 978-0-643-09137-5.
  34. ^ Smith, W. John (2020-12-31), Kroodsma, Donald E; Miller, Edward H (red.), "21. Using Interactive Playback to Study How Songs and Singing Contribute to Communication about Behavior", Ecology and Evolution of Acoustic Communication in Birds, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, s. 377-397, doi:10.7591/9781501736957-030, ISBN 978-1-5017-3695-7, S2CID 225018688, hentet 3. januar 2021
  35. ^ a b c Higgins 1999, s. 1124–1125.
  36. ^ The Daily News, Perth, 22 December 1891, page 3, Legislative Assembly
  37. ^ Sellick, Douglas. First impressions : Albany 1791-1901 :travellers' tales. s. 151-2. ISBN 0730983668.
  38. ^ Jenkins, C.F .H. (1959). "Introduced Birds in Western Australia". Emu. 59: 201-207.
  39. ^ Long, J. L. (1974). Introduced birds and mammals in Western Australia. Agriculture Protection Board of Western Australia. s. 3. ISBN 0-7244-5758-5. OCLC 27566719.
  40. ^ Thomson, G.M. (1922). The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. s. 137-138.
  41. ^ Higgins 1999, s. 1123.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g ICTN; Higgins, P. J.; Davies, S. J. J. F. (1997). "Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Volume 3: Snipe to Pigeons". Colonial Waterbirds. 20 (3): 631. doi:10.2307/1521625. ISSN 0738-6028. JSTOR 1521625.
  43. ^ a b Morton, S. R.; Parry, G. D. (Juli 1974). "The Auxiliary Social System in Kookaburras: A Reappraisal of Its Adaptive Significance". Emu – Austral Ornithology. 74 (3): 196-198. doi:10.1071/mu974195b. ISSN 0158-4197. {{cite journal}}: Tjek datoværdier i: |date= (hjælp)
  44. ^ Skabelon:Australian Dictionary of Biography
  45. ^ Kaercher, Melissa (30. maj 2013). "The Sound and the Foley". Tin Lizard Productions.
  46. ^ BirdLife Australia (2020). "Explore Birdata map: Laughing kookaburra". Birdata. Hentet 17. juni 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: url-status (link)
  47. ^ Michaux, B. (2013). Miskelly, C.M. (red.). "Laughing kookaburra". New Zealand Birds Online. Hentet 4 oktober 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)

Further reading

[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
  • Legge, Sarah (2004). Kookaburra: King of the Bush. Collingwood Vic, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09063-7.
  • Parry, Veronica A. (1970). Kookaburras. Melbourne: Lansdowne Press. ISBN 978-0-7018-0290-5.

Eksterne henvisninger

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Skabelon:Halcyoninae

K ategori:Fugle fra Australien

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